![]() However, drawing constitutes a core scientific practice itself and, consequently, necessitates a profound understanding of how a drawing is sequentially generated and which factors influence its quality. This finding has been replicated in various studies ( Mason et al., 2013 Schmeck et al., 2014 Rellensmann et al., 2016 Fiorella and Zhang, 2018 Hellenbrand et al., 2019 Schmidgall et al., 2020 Stieff and DeSutter, 2020).ĭespite focusing on the quality of final drawing products and their relation to learning outcomes, the actual drawing process leading to these products has not received much attention in research so far ( Lobato et al., 2014). (2010) point out that the quality of learners’ drawings is predictive of their learning outcomes, i.e., the more accurately and correctly learners draw, the better their performance. By referring to the prognostic drawing principle, Schwamborn et al. ![]() However, drawing per se does not automatically enhance learning. Thus, drawing enhances learning outcomes related to retention, comprehension, and knowledge transfer ( Van Meter and Garner, 2005 Leopold and Leutner, 2012 Schmeck et al., 2014 Fiorella and Zhang, 2018 Fiorella et al., 2020). Predominantly, it has been shown that prompting learners to visually depict content presented in text- or animation-based instructional materials is an effective learning strategy as students who draw not only build higher quality explanations and develop a more coherent mental model of a studied phenomenon, but also perform better in subsequent tasks and tests ( Bobek and Tversky, 2016 Fiorella and Zhang, 2018 Cromley et al., 2019). ![]() In recent years, much research has been conducted on drawing as a learning activity across different STEM contexts such as chemistry ( Hellenbrand et al., 2019), physics ( Maries and Singh, 2018), biology ( Schmeck et al., 2014), and geography ( Gobert and Clement, 1999) at school and college levels. In fact, by expressing one’s reasoning and externalizing mental models, drawings can help learning new concepts and support problem-solving ( Cox, 1999 Ainsworth et al., 2011 Quillin and Thomas, 2015 Cooper et al., 2017 Wu and Rau, 2019). As representations constitute a fundamental means for the construction and transmission of knowledge, students need to be proficient in analyzing and using given representations ( Nitz et al., 2014) and be fluent in generating them ( Ainsworth et al., 2011). In science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, scientists and learners rely heavily on external representations to make sense of scientific concepts and phenomena ( Fiorella and Zhang, 2018 Ainsworth and Scheiter, 2021). Implications for supporting learners’ drawing process and using eye-tracking for characterizing drawing processes in other STEM disciplines are discussed. Further, the results show that the productivity of a drawing depends on learners’ flexibility in information selection. Results indicate that unproductive drawings often stem from integrating and connecting unrelated information during the drawing process. Using eye-tracking, the characteristics regarding the construction of productive and unproductive drawings became visible. To this end, a qualitative, exploratory study has been conducted to investigate undergraduate students’ ( N = 20) drawing processes of resonance structures while solving an organic case comparison task. To support learners in drawing and using resonance structures in problem-solving, it is necessary to characterize how they generate their drawings. However, this type of representation places a high cognitive demand on learners, which, besides conceptual difficulties, leads to drawing difficulties. ![]() Resonance structures, for example, are often used to estimate reactive sites in a molecule and to propose reaction pathways. However, especially in organic chemistry, the investigation of drawing processes is of great importance as generating different representations, such as structural formulas, is inherent to problem-solving in this visual-laden discipline. Although research has highlighted the effectiveness of drawing as a learning strategy and the importance of drawing accuracy for learning success, little is known about learners’ actual drawing process.
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